THE ROLE OF BENEDICTINE WOMEN BEFORE THE GREGORIAN REFORM

by Dr. Deborah Vess

(This is a transcript of a presentation given several years ago at the International Conference on the History of Women Religious, and will be the editorial preface to a compilation of biographies of Benedictine Women by Father Roger Schonebechler, O.S.B.)

In the eleventh century, the Gregorian reform redirected the life of the church. Canon law was codified, theology was reexamined, and the papacy achieved greater control over the western church. The reform was only a part of a vast movement in the eleventh and twelfth centuries of intense spirituality, which saw the rise of a number of new monastic orders. Women also desired to play a role in this widespread explosion of piety. Robert of Arbrissel attracted large numbers of women from all classes, and the Cistercians attracted a large number of women's houses which desired to be part of the order.

Despite the large numbers of women demanding to be admitted to these new orders, women were increasingly left on the sidelines of the movement. By the end of the twelfth century, the Cistercians were no longer accepting women's communities into the order. The reform movement ironically had deep ramifications for women, who were stripped of their former positions of power and authority and relegated to the background.

The Schoenbechler manuscript makes a valuable contribution to women's studies for a number of reasons, but chief among them is its attention to Benedictine women of power and authority before the Gregorian reform. Of the hundreds of women included in the manuscript, over two-thirds of them lived before the twelfth century. In part, this discrepancy in overall numbers reflects changes in the perception of saintliness and piety, but it also reflects the after-effects of the Gregorian reform on the position of women in the church. I will not dwell further on these points, but will instead examine the picture of early Benedictine women which emerges from the manuscript.

This is the first manuscript to list women chronologically according to the year or century in which they died, and the first to focus exclusively on Benedictine women. The arrangement of the text provides a unique opportunity to evaluate the nature of Benedictine women's monasticism in each century and geographical location, and to notice certain trends which emerge from the work as a whole. What is most apparent is the profoundly significant role played by women in the spread of Christianity, monasticism, and learning throughout Europe in the early Middle Ages. Medieval women were the full-fledged partners of their male counterparts, and were the backbone of the growing Church. Without the contributions of these women, the Church would have been deprived of much of the living, vibrant spirituality which transformed Europe into a community united by faith. Women were instrumental in the conversions of their husbands, who in turn converted entire kingdoms; women founded noteworthy communities which continued to be influential for centuries, and worked side-by-side with missionaries who converted whole peoples to the faith. The Schoenbechler manuscript brings to the forefront the rich history of Benedictine women, a history which has left a lasting mark on the faith which it espoused.

One of the most noticeable aspects of the manuscript is the intense learning of many of the women portrayed. Such a noted figure as the Venerable Bede describes Hild of Whitby as a respected woman whose advice was not only sought out by kings and princes, but also followed. Under her leadership, Whitby became a renowned center of learning. Leoba was such a renowned teacher that there was hardly a convent in Germany which did not have one of her disciples as abbess. She was able to read and write Latin, and had a tremendously wide knowledge of the Scriptures complemented by wise judgment, such that bishops, princes, and other luminaries discussed spiritual matters with her. She was a friend of Queen Hildegard, the wife of Charlemagne. She was so esteemed by Boniface that he arranged for her to be buried by his side. Leoba passed on the teaching which she herself had received from her own superior, Tetta, who must also have been an equally wise amma, for many of the women who accompanied Boniface to Germany were from Tetta's monastery. Tetta also corresponded with Boniface, and provided much spiritual support for his efforts.

Aelfled was described as a sapiens femina, or wise woman, who was in sanctis erudita scripturis. Her erudition was sufficient to attract the attention of St. Cuthbert, with whom she engaged in discussions of political matters. Cyneburg's intellectual and leadership abilities were recognized by Henry II when he left the affairs of state in her hands during a lengthy absence. Gertrude of Nivelles was said to have memorized the entire collection of divine laws, and to be equally proficient with Scriptural commentary. Bertgitha was made the head of all the monastic schools in Thuringia. Many important works of the early Middle Ages were written at the instigation of women who desired to further their knowledge, such as Alcuin's Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, which he composed at the request of Gisella of Chelles.

The scholarship of women monastics is indicated by the treatise on virginity written by Aldhelm for the nuns at Barking. He praises the nuns for their devotion to learning, and likens them to bees who gather material from everywhere to study. Among the subjects he mentions are Scripture, grammar, poetry, and history. Herrad's Garden of Earthly Delights is a later picture of such diverse and eclectic learning. Although most of the work has been lost and is only known through the testimony of others, it contained a history of the world from creation to the arrival of the Antichrist, and quoted from both secular and sacred works. It included illuminations and explanatory remarks in both Latin and German, designed so that nuns who studied the work might learn Latin as they progressed. The 324 folios of the work were an incredible compendium of twelfth-century learning. and a testament to the abilities of the woman who compiled it.

Although history long neglected the role of women in the early Church, it was a woman,Hugeburc, who may have been the same person as Hunechildis of Thuringia, who left one of the most memorable records of the evangelization of Europe, the lives of Willibald and Winnibald. The reverence of women for learning is amply shown in the story of Wiborada, who admonished a priest to "save the books first" and so became the patroness of bibliophiles. It was, then, a woman who became the symbol of the monastic love of learning.

Schoenbechler's biographical compilation highlights the importance of women in the spread of Christianity. Bertha of Kent was instrumental in converting her husband Aethelbert to Christianity; her daughter Ethelberg was instrumental in the conversion of her husband Edwin of Northumbria. Although the Christian period was short-lived after Edwin's death, the influence of these first conversions was not. It is also possible that Ethelberg's influence was responsible for the first monastic foundations in Kent. After Edwin's death, Ethelberg and her children fled to her brother's court in Kent. Edbald of Kent divorced his pagan wife, married a Frankish princess, and donated a piece of land to his daughter Eanswith at Folkestone, which became a cornerstone of Christian monasticism in Kent. Hild of Whitby was also originally from the court of Edwin, and under her leadership Whitby hosted the Synod of Whitby in 644.

Stories of other influential women abound in the manuscript. Ermenild of Ely was the daughter of Sexburg, and married King Wulfher of Mercia. She overcame paganism in Mercia, brought about the conversion of the Veeta, persuaded King Ethelwold of the West Saxons to be baptized, and brought the East Saxons and their king back from apostasy. Wilfrid of York turned to her and her husband for asylum when in hiding from King Oswy. Sadalberg converted her husband, encouraged baptisms, and made several foundations on the continent.

Women were also influential in the spread of monasticism. Irmina of Oehren donated the estate where Willibrod founded his monastery of Echternach, as well as several other estates. Her vita, written four-hundred years after her death in 708, served to remind the post-Gregorian reform period of the contributions of women. Ida of Herzfeld founded the convent of Herzfeld, and used her large revenues for the care of the poor and needy. St. Bertha of Rupertsburg strongly influenced the career of her son Rupert. Together they built many religious houses and gave much of their wealth to the poor. She spent the last years of her life in Rupertsburg, the story of which was told by another famous inhabitant of Rupertsburg, Hildegard of Bingen.

Eugenia founded the monastery of Hohenburg, later called Odilienburg, which became a famous place of pilgrimage. She later founded the monastery of Niedermunster. After a pilgrimage to Rome, Begga founded a monastery at Andenne (7th) and built seven chapels after the seven churches of Rome. Sexburg of Ely founded the monastery of Sheppey, and built six churches there.

Ermenild became abbess of Minster and later Ely, and her family carried on the tradition. Her daughter Werberg later became head of all the religious houses in Mercia, and her shrine was a popular place for pilgrimage. Ermenburg was the first abbess of Minster. Three of her daughters and her two sisters (Ermengyth and Ethelred) also became influential nuns at Minster and other places. Etheldred of Ely, sister of Sexburg, founded the monastery of Ely. Her influence is still felt in the many churches in England which bear her name.

Women were literally involved from the ground up in founding new communities and carrying the Christian faith to the frontiers of Europe. Sexburg oversaw the building of her monastery on Sheppey, and Landrada worked "like a man" and personally built the altar of her church. Herlindis and Renildis carried large stones and sand to the construction site of their monastery at Eyck. Such efforts as these were responsible for establishing an enduring monastic presence which attracted hundreds of vocations, as did Aurea's community in Paris of three-hundred women Tetta's community at Winborne of five-hundred nuns. Bertilla of Chelles was so renowned as a leader that her community attracted converts from England, including Queen Hereswith, the widow of King Ethelhere of the East Angles and the sister of Hild of Whitby. Other royal figures of great influence also submitted to her rule, as did the foundress of Chelles, Queen Bathild.

Benedictine women also played important roles in the early synods. Although the abbess Hilda originally supported Celtic customs, she eventually was one of the participants of the Synod of Whitby who agreed to the unification with Rome. Aelfled followed in the footsteps of her predecessor Hild and was strongly influential in getting the Synod of Nidd to reinstate Wilfrid as bishop. That women enjoyed a co-equal role with their male counterparts is indicated by the fact that Mildred, foundress of Minster, signed a charter from King Witred granting privileges to monasteries and churches in Kent. Her name is the first of five abbesses who signed, and appears before the names of the priests and other officials who were present.

The above examples serve as reminders of the influential and powerful role of women in the early Church. One of the cornerstones of Benedictine spirituality is the notion of conversatio morum suorum, which is expressed in a life of continuous conversion, a continuous turning toward God which is never completed and seeks to grow ever closer to the Divine. The Benedictine women in the Schoenbechler manuscript are ample exemplars of conversatio, for their work can best be seen as a continuous presence which furthered the conversion experience of the masses.

Many Benedictine women were engaged in acts of charity. Edith, for example, cared for the comfort of guests even as she herself endured the most severe fasting, and cared for the poor, sick and deformed. Her charitable activities even extended to the animals which surrounded her monastery, feeding them out of her own hands. Although her biographer Goscelin suggests that such excessive charity was looked upon with reservation, she is a woman whose life harmonized body and soul, and the animal world with the human world in a way reminiscent of Athanasius's description of Abba Antony in the Life of Antony.

The fruits of contemplation were often manifested as love for the poor, as seen in the life of Ethelberg of Essex, who traveled to Rome and built a hospice for pilgrims and the poor. Bathild of Chelles cared for the poor, protested simony, and instituted the prohibition of slavery, buying many slaves herself and personally granting their freedom. Reinhild of Saintes donated much of her wealth to the monastery at Lobbes, and devoted the rest of her life to works of charity, assisted by the subdeacon Grimoald. Lufthild of Cologne's charity toward the poor for which she was cruelly treated by her stepmother. Despite the difficult circumstances of her home life, she was known for her efforts to promote peace in resolving disputes.

The spirituality of these women gave them power which transformed the lives of those around them. Often their quest to lead the spiritual life continued in spite of the objections of family and potential suitors. Many women, in their effort to free themselves from the restrictions of a society which used them as pawns in marriages forged for political purposes, suffered physical violence at the hands of those who controlled the hierarchy. Charlemagne, for example, was said to have actually broken the arm of Amalberg, whom he wished to marry, when he attempted to forcibly carry her from the church where she was hiding. While the bodies of women such as Amalberg might be broken, their spirits continued to shine as lights in the darkness.

Other tragedies often opened the door to the monastic life for women. Werberg of Ely's brothers were killed by their own father for their opposition to their father's demand that Werberg marry a noble of the court. Her father's repentance allowed her to enter the monastery at Ely. Ermenberg of Minster began her monastic life after King Egbert gave her some land as reparation for the murder of her brothers. Women such as these transformed the violence of the early medieval world into a vision of peace, a peace lived out in the stability of the Benedictine presence.

As has been pointed out by Suzanne Wemple, Joan Schulenberg, and others, the ideal of sanctity shifted in the ninth century, and tended to emphasize the "domestic skills" of the women as a mark of their holiness. Many Benedictine women of this period, as well as in earlier and later centuries, engaged in needlework and other creative activities. Wiborad cared for her brother when he was a child, and continued to care for him after he entered the monastic life. She provided covers for the books produced in the monastery of St. Gall. Edburg of Minster corresponded with Boniface, and he requested some of the beautifully copies of the Scriptures for which she was widely known. She also sent Boniface vestments, carpets for the sanctuary, clothes, and fifty pieces of gold for his mission work in Germany. The embroidery work of the English nuns was highly valued, and seen by Winfrid as "proofs of [their] love," and continued to be highly prized for centuries after these events. When medieval popes sent the pall to newly elected archbishops in England, they often asked for some of the famous embroidered vestments in return. Even in the thirteenth century, Innocent III was filled with envy when he saw the sumptuous vestments produced by English nuns, and remarked that "truly England is our storehouse of delights, a very inexhaustible well; where much abounds, much can be extorted from many" and promptly demanded some of the embroidery for his chapel.

Nor were the English nuns the only ones to create such memorable works of art. Herlindis and Relindis of Maaaseyk were known for their lack of tolerance for inaction, and made beautifully crafted vestments as well as copies of the books needed for the recitation of the Divine Office. Eustadiola of Moyen-Moutier supervised her nuns in the art of making vestments and altar linens. She was herself proficient in making crucifixes, chalices, candlestick holders, and many other items of gold and silver for use in the divine services. The vestments and Scriptures which many women monastics created and copied literally clothed a naked Church, symbolizing the beauty of its spiritual message with garments of exquisite craftsmanship and words written in pure gold. These beautiful copies of the Scriptures made by women provided the German missionaries with the very substance of what they taught; the garments and altar pieces were the visual symbols of the message of the Gospels. As the priests who wore the vestments and used the altar pieces presided over the liturgy, the women who made these garments were also present there with them.

Women, as much as their male counterparts, contributed to the beauty of the mass and the symbolism it conveyed. The vessels in which the sacred body and blood were held were the work of women; the clothing which designated the priest was also the work of women. These work of these women was a symbolic continuation of the role of Christ's mother, Mary, who conveyed our common humanity to our savior. Just as she was the vessel through which he entered the world, so too, the handiwork of these women was the vessel through which much of Europe encountered the Word.

The legacy of these women is most clearly seen in many of the legends told about them. Gertrude of Nivelles was recognized in later legends as a patroness of pilgrims, not only those engaged in earthly journeys, but also of souls who were said to spend the first night of their journey to judgment day with Gertrude. Thus, she was seen as one who helped to guide souls to their maker, a role which the many women above played in life itself. Ethelberg appeared after her death to Queen Alftrude, who was so shaken that she immediately fulfilled the command to restore Wilfhild to her monastery at Barking. St. Edith was known as a fearsome protector of her monastery's property. A king whohad usurped a piece of land almost immediately died and, as if this was not enough, the corpse arose from the dead to tell those at his wake of the effects of Edith's wrath.

Aya of Mons can also be seen in this light. After the death of her husband, Aya deeded all of her property to the monastery of Mons in Hainault in spite of the opposition of her family. She became the patroness of lawsuits after she appeared to her relatives, who had protested her deed, and convinced them that she had rightfully deeded the monastery to the nuns. Her story is particularly interesting, as it provided women with symbolic satisfaction for the many abuses which they had endured. Aya, as patroness of lawsuits, symbolized the power of women to transcend the political and legal conditions of the times, and to protect their integrity and ability to pursue whatever goals they wished to achieve. Ethelberg was said to have restored the ability of her disciple Thorgith to speak.

Ethelberg's story and many others like it continue to speak to and for women today, and to remind the Christian faithful of the integral role played by women in the practice of their faith. During one of her appearances after death, Edith was said to have remarked that "I can do anything." What a fitting epitaph for the hundreds of women who helped to mold the Church and who continue to do so today.